Spain is the Hidden Hand responsible for theft of American Indigenous land and identity
- Ishmael Bey
- May 4
- 10 min read
The Colonial Period: Merchants and Speculators
Before 1783 there was little immigration from the British North American colonies to Louisiana. If such colonists wanted to relocate southward, they could choose the British colony of West Florida, which included thriving planter communities around Natchez and Manchac. After the American Revolution (1775–1783), the wave of Loyalist émigrés leaving the former colonies went mainly to Canada, the Floridas, and the British Caribbean. Later in the 1780s, however, governor Esteban Miró tried to attract western American settlers with promises of free land and religious toleration. Land-hungry migrants (including, at one point, Daniel Boone) took Spanish loyalty oaths in exchange for generous grants, but ultimately most American settlers of the 1780s preferred to move to West Florida (now retroceded to Spain) or to settlements in northern parts of the Louisiana territory beyond the borders of the future state.
Daniel Boone the the Sworn Citizen of Spain
In the late 18th century, as the United States expanded westward, the Spanish government sought to strengthen its hold on territories such as Louisiana and West Florida. To achieve this, Spanish authorities implemented policies aimed at attracting American settlers by offering incentives like land grants and religious tolerance. A notable figure among those who accepted these terms was the famed frontiersman Daniel Boone.
Daniel Boone's Oath to Spain
By the late 1790s, Boone faced legal disputes over land titles in Kentucky, leading to financial difficulties. Seeking new opportunities, he looked westward to Spanish-controlled Upper Louisiana (present-day Missouri). In 1799, Boone and his family relocated to this region, where he accepted a generous land grant from the Spanish authorities. In return, Boone swore an oath of allegiance to the Spanish Crown, effectively renouncing his American citizenship to become a Spanish subject.
" The Spanish government, eager to populate and secure its territories, was willing to overlook certain requirements for settlers of Boone's stature. Typically, settlers were expected to not only swear allegiance but also to cultivate and improve the land. However, Boone was granted 10,000 arpents (approximately 8,500 acres) of prime land and was notably exempted from the usual obligations of settlement and cultivation. "
Motivations Behind the Oath
Boone's decision to swear allegiance to Spain was driven by several factors:
Land Opportunities: The Spanish offered substantial land grants to settlers, presenting Boone with the chance to acquire vast tracts of fertile land, which was increasingly scarce in the eastern United States.
Legal and Financial Relief: Facing legal challenges and financial losses in Kentucky, relocating to Spanish territory provided Boone with a fresh start and alleviated some of his burdens.
Autonomy and Governance: The Spanish colonial administration often allowed settlers a degree of self-governance, which appealed to Boone's independent spirit.
Other American Settlers Who Took the Oath
Boone was not alone in this migration; thousands of American settlers moved into Spanish territories during this period. Notable individuals included:
George Rogers Clark: A prominent military leader during the American Revolutionary War, Clark, like Boone, accepted Spanish land grants and swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown in exchange for lands in Louisiana and West Florida.
Andrew Jackson's Oath to Spain
In 1789, a 22-year-old Andrew Jackson, who would later become the seventh President of the United States, signed an oath of loyalty to Spain. At that time, the Mississippi River and the town of Natchez were under Spanish control, and Spain required anyone conducting business in these areas to swear allegiance to the Spanish crown. Jackson's oath was a pragmatic decision to engage in trade within Spanish territories. Historian Robert Remini highlighted the irony of this act, noting Jackson's later military campaigns against Spanish forces in Florida.
James Wilkinson: A controversial figure, Wilkinson served as a general in the U.S. Army while secretly acting as an agent for Spain. In 1787, he traveled to New Orleans, swore allegiance to the Spanish King, and proposed plans to promote Spanish interests in the western territories.
Moses Austin: An early American settler, Austin sought to establish an American colony in Spanish Texas. In 1820, he traveled to San Antonio and secured permission from Spanish authorities to bring 300 families into Texas, agreeing to the conditions set by the Spanish government, which included allegiance to the Spanish Crown.
Moses Austin's Empresario Agreement
Moses Austin, an American businessman, sought to establish a colony in Spanish-controlled Texas in the early 19th century. In 1820, he petitioned the Spanish authorities for permission to settle 300 families in Texas. To secure this grant, Austin assured the Spanish government that the settlers would be loyal subjects, effectively swearing allegiance to Spain. This agreement required settlers to adopt Spanish citizenship and adhere to Spanish laws, laying the foundation for future American immigration into Texas.
Spanish Policies and Their Impact
The Spanish strategy of offering land and religious tolerance in exchange for loyalty oaths was part of a broader effort to stabilize and develop their North American territories. Governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró, who served as the Governor of Louisiana from 1785 to 1791, played a pivotal role in implementing these policies. He encouraged American settlers to immigrate by providing land grants and assurances of religious freedom, aiming to create a buffer against potential encroachments by other powers and to promote economic development
This policy led to a significant influx of American settlers into Spanish territories. While it strengthened the Spanish presence in these regions temporarily, it also sowed the seeds for future conflicts. The settlers' American identities and the eventual expansionist policies of the United States culminated in the annexation of these territories in the early 19th century.
“ The local authorities may also have granted lands to certain Americans, who, like Daniel Boone, manifested a strong feeling against their native country. According to Violette, Boone was granted ten thousand acres by De Lassus in return for bringing into Upper Louisiana one hundred and fifty families from Virginia and Kentucky, but through failure to secure the necessary legal documents, he was never able to obtain the confirmation of his grant.53 However, the only record found containing a mention of a grant to Boone recites that, on December 26, 1799, he was promised one thousand arpents by Trudeau. 54 In this no mention of the families to be brought in is made.” Section 17
No. 2714: April 8, 1927
THE OPENING OF TEXAS TO FOREIGN
SETTLEMENT
1801-1821
By
MATTIE AUSTIN HATCHER, M.A.
Archivist of the University of Texas
PUBLISHED BY
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS
AUSTIN
Throughout the Spanish colonial era, various Native American leaders navigated complex relationships with European powers, including swearing allegiance to Spain. These alliances were often strategic, aiming to preserve autonomy, protect communities, or leverage Spanish support against rival groups. Notable examples include:
Alexander McGillivray (c. 1750–1793) was a significant Creek leader of mixed Scottish and Creek ancestry who played a crucial role in diplomatic relations between American Indian nations, Spain, Britain, and the United States during the late 18th century. His alliance with Spain was a strategic move to protect Creek sovereignty against American expansion.
McGillivray’s Alliance with Spain
Early Life and Leadership
Born to a Scottish trader, Lachlan McGillivray, and a Creek woman of the Wind Clan, Sehoy Marchand, McGillivray was uniquely positioned between Native American and European cultures. He received a Western education in Charleston, South Carolina, which later helped him navigate diplomatic and trade negotiations. By the 1780s, he had risen to become the principal leader of the Upper Creek towns and was instrumental in shaping Creek foreign policy.
Creek-Spanish Relations
As the newly independent United States expanded westward, McGillivray saw the need to secure Creek lands from American encroachment. He turned to Spain, which controlled Florida and Louisiana, for military and economic support. Spain, in return, saw the Creek Confederacy as a valuable ally to counteract U.S. expansion into the southeastern territories.
In 1784, McGillivray traveled to Pensacola, the Spanish capital of West Florida, where he negotiated the Treaty of Pensacola with Spanish officials. Under this treaty:
Spain recognized Creek sovereignty over their lands.
Spain provided the Creeks with weapons and trade goods.
The Creeks pledged to remain loyal allies to Spain and resist American settlement.
Spain even granted McGillivray a commission as a colonel in the Spanish army, solidifying his influence within both the Creek and Spanish hierarchies.
Conflict with the United States
Despite his alliance with Spain, McGillivray maintained a complex relationship with the United States. He resisted American efforts to claim Creek lands through illegitimate treaties and led Creek warriors in raids against U.S. settlers encroaching on Creek territory.
However, as tensions increased, McGillivray sought to negotiate peace. In 1790, he traveled to New York and signed the Treaty of New York with President George Washington. This treaty:
Recognized Creek territorial sovereignty.
Provided trade benefits to the Creek people.
Named McGillivray an agent of the United States (though he continued to work with Spain).
In the colonial Southeast, several Native American leaders and communities engaged diplomatically with Spanish authorities, often swearing allegiance to Spain to secure alliances, trade benefits, and protection. Notable instances include:
Tallapoosa Chiefs
In the late 18th century, eight chiefs from the Tallapoosa, a division of the Creek Confederacy, entered into a defensive alliance with Spain. They pledged to maintain peace and friendship with both Spain and neighboring tribes. As a symbol of this alliance, each chief received medals—eight were awarded "great medals," and six received "small medals." The Spanish also provided them with supplies, including gunpowder, provisions, and rum
Guale Chiefs
During the establishment of Spanish missions along the Georgia coast in the 16th and 17th centuries, Guale chiefs often requested the presence of Spanish friars and the construction of missions within their territories. By integrating into the mission system, these leaders acknowledged Spanish sovereignty, aiming to gain the benefits of alliance while maintaining a degree of autonomy.
Seminole Leaders
In the 18th century, as various Native American groups migrated into Florida, leaders of these communities, later known as the Seminoles, interacted with Spanish authorities. While specific instances of formal oaths of allegiance are less documented, the Seminoles established cooperative relations with the Spanish, who controlled Florida at the time. These relations were characterized by mutual benefit, with the Seminoles assisting in the defense of Spanish territories and, in return, receiving trade goods and a degree of political autonomy.
Gonzalo Mazatzin Moctezuma
Gonzalo Mazatzin Moctezuma, a noble of indigenous descent, pledged allegiance to Spain during Hernán Cortés' conquest. Recognized for his support, he was appointed governor of Tepexi de la Seda (modern-day Tepexi de Rodríguez, Puebla, Mexico) and granted the rank of captain. His descendants maintained influence in the region for centuries.
Francisco Tenamaztle
Francisco Tenamaztle, a leader of the Caxcan people in present-day Zacatecas, Mexico, was baptized and swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown. Despite this, oppressive Spanish rule led him to spearhead the Mixtón War (1540–1542), a significant indigenous uprising against colonial authorities.
Pueblo Leaders During the Reconquest
After the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 expelled Spanish settlers from present-day New Mexico, Spanish forces, led by Diego de Vargas, sought to reclaim the territory in 1692. De Vargas offered clemency and protection to Pueblo leaders who would swear allegiance to the Spanish Crown and return to Christianity. Some leaders accepted, facilitating a relatively peaceful Spanish reoccupation, while others resisted, leading to further conflicts.
Juanillo of the Guale
Juanillo, a chief of the Tolomato people within the Guale chiefdom (in present-day Georgia, USA), initially accepted Spanish missionaries. However, cultural and religious impositions led him to lead the Guale Uprising of 1597 against Spanish authorities. After the revolt, in May 1600, a delegation of Guale chiefs went to St. Augustine to swear obedience to King Philip III in the presence of Governor Gonzalo Méndez de Canço, under conditions that included suppressing any future uprisings against the Spanish.
Spain's Financing and Support of the American Revolution
I. Background and Motivations
Spain, under King Charles III, had strategic reasons for aiding the American colonies indirectly:
Reclaiming lost territories from Britain (notably Gibraltar and Florida).
Weakening Britain’s global power without encouraging revolutions in its own colonies.
Aligning with France under the Bourbon Family Compact (1761).
Although wary of republicanism, Spain saw Britain’s conflict with the colonies as an opportunity to strike a blow against a common rival.
II. Covert Support Before Official Entry (1776–1779)
Spain’s assistance began covertly, years before it officially declared war on Britain in 1779.
A. Supplies Through the “Roderigue Hortalez & Co.”
A front company created by France and Spain to funnel supplies to the American rebels.
Spanish arms, gunpowder, blankets, and uniforms were funneled through French intermediaries to American forces.
Source: Dull, Jonathan R. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. Yale University Press, 1985, pp. 102–104.
B. Cuban and Mexican Silver
Spain facilitated massive transfers of silver from its American colonies.
Notably, shipments from Havana and Veracruz helped fund Continental Army efforts.
American agent Arthur Lee and others obtained loans and grants through Spanish connections.
Footnote: Thomas E. Chávez, Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift (University of New Mexico Press, 2002), pp. 40–43.
III. Spain's Declaration of War and Official Involvement (1779–1783)
Spain officially declared war on Britain in June 1779, becoming a co-belligerent, but not a direct American ally.
A. Financial Support and the Siege of Gibraltar
Spain committed significant military and financial resources to the war.
The Siege of Gibraltar (1779–1783) tied up massive British resources.
Spain spent millions of pesos financing its military campaigns, relieving pressure on American forces.
Footnote: Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763. HarperCollins, 2003.
B. Bernardo de Gálvez and the Mississippi Valley
Governor of Spanish Louisiana, Gálvez launched military campaigns that liberated British-held forts at Baton Rouge, Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola.
His victories cut off British access to the Mississippi River, aiding American logistics.
Footnote: Chávez, Spain and the Independence of the United States, pp. 132–150.
IV. The Havana Contribution (1781)
Perhaps Spain's most direct and dramatic financial contribution came during the Yorktown campaign.
A. Cuban Women’s Fundraising Effort
When George Washington and Rochambeau needed funds to pay troops and transport the Franco-American army to Yorktown, Spanish officials in Havana raised over 500,000 silver pesos within hours.
This “Havana contribution” was critical to the Yorktown campaign’s success.
Footnote: Fernández, Ronald. Los Mismos: The Lives of Hispanic Americans. HarperCollins, 1992, pp. 45–46.
V. Legacy and Recognition
Spain’s contributions, while not always acknowledged in American narratives, were substantial:
Financial: Millions of pesos from New Spain (Mexico) and Cuba.
Military: Engagements that diverted British forces.
Diplomatic: Undermining British supremacy without directly promoting American republicanism.
Footnote: Coxe, Tench. A View of the United States of America. William Hall and Wrigley, 1794, pp. 108–110.
VI. Summary of Spain's Contributions
Type of Support | Details |
Covert Aid | Supplies via Roderigue Hortalez & Co. |
Financial Support | Silver from Cuba, Mexico, and fundraising campaigns |
Military Engagement | Campaigns led by Bernardo de Gálvez in the Gulf Coast |
Strategic Diversion | Siege of Gibraltar and attacks on British Caribbean holdings |
Diplomatic Position | War declaration without recognition of U.S. independence (until 1783) |
References
Chávez, Thomas E. Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
Dull, Jonathan R. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. Yale University Press, 1985.
Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763. HarperCollins, 2003.
Fernández, Ronald. Los Mismos: The Lives of Hispanic Americans. HarperCollins, 1992.
Coxe, Tench. A View of the United States of America. William Hall and Wrigley, 1794.
FIRST TRIBE
Comments